Topics for exploration in this issue are Gravity, and getting out there from here. Be sure and check the Clarifications entries at the end of this section for further information.

Spirals and Rings

    Okay, there’s one thing about the current big bang model that really bothers me. It’s a minor discrepancy, to be sure, but galling all the same. You see, according to all the available visual evidence (and I want to emphasize VISUAL) our galaxy, along with every other spiral galaxy we’ve thus far seen, had to go through a very specific process to achieve this particular shape. And it’s that unique sequence of events which the current models seem to ignore.

    For a galaxy to become a spiral, it needs an engine at its heart to churn the galaxy into shape. We now know that there is a supermassive black hole at the center of our own Milky Way galaxy. And we have visual evidence, as well as radio, x-ray, gamma, etc, which shows that supermassive black holes can be found at the center of many other spiral galaxies, too. (hint: try all of them)

    So, how does it work? Well, when the Saturn guys at JPL started getting really hi-res photos back from that cold, distant world, they noticed something unexpected. There were clumps of ring material floating around in the various ring bands. These weren’t exactly moons, of course, or even far enough along to be called proto-moons. They were more like incredibly dense concentrations of ring stuff. After some long and dedicated head scratching, the good folks at JPL concluded that variations in Saturn’s field of gravity caused the ring material to alternately speed up or slow down, which caused it to clump together. Gravity being what it is (The Constant Force) if these balls of dust and rock and ice survived long enough, they might eventually become moons. (This explains the some-what pronounced gaps in Saturn’s ring system.) Usually, though, if visual evidence is any indication, most of these moon wannabes break up before they get that far. However, this wasn’t really the weird part (though it did clue them in on how our own solar system was formed). The really weird part was that at a certain distance in front of, and in back of, each of these would be moons, was another, smaller, bow shaped clump of material, a ‘wave’ that proceeded and followed each proto-moon. This wave was created by the gravity field of the clump of matter. It pushed whatever was in front of it, and pulled along whatever was behind it. (At this point it’s probably worth noting that the Earth has a group of asteroids called the Apollo asteroids that precede our orbital path, and another group of asteroids, called the Trojans, that follows along behind us.)

    What exactly do the rings of Saturn have to do with our spiral galaxy, you ask? Well, it’s like this: the supermassive black hole at the center of our galaxy spins, and variations in its field of gravity serve to speed up and slow down the stars closest to it. The gravity fields of these stars interact with other nearby stars, both pushing and pulling them along, and, over time, this motion is imparted to our entire galaxy. The fact that the Milky Way is just so large, and filled with so many stars and nebulae, would provide one easy answer for why our galaxy, and billions of others like it, are spirals. Because of the mass involved, it simply took a long time to get the whole thing moving, and it had to be done from the inside out. Which would mean that the stars nearer the center of the galaxy would move faster (they do) than those further out (which tend to move slower, too). Over time, (possibly a billion years or more) gravity would tend to draws clumps of stars and nebulae along behind it, and these would fold into arms, thus creating the unique spiral shape. (If you have any questions about this one, just plug the drain in the sink, run about 5mm of water, pour in a few drops of liquid soap and stir frenetically. Once you have some suds, unplug the drain, and watch the galaxy spin).

    But this still leaves us with one burning question-How did the supermassive black hole at the center of our galaxy come into being in the first place? Okay, before we go any further, I want to say I’m getting a little leery about the whole big bang thing. I know, it’s been all the rage, but what we’re seeing out there isn’t always bearing it out. Once again, visual evidence has shown a three dimensional latticework of galaxies stretching off in all different directions. Even when taking dark energy into account, it still seems rather implausible that a single source detonation could create such a unique shape. At this point, I’m kinda leaning towards the collision of two universes thing. If true, it would certainly explain much about the nature of not only our universe, but our very existence.

    So, the two Universes collide, and VOILA!-we have a Universe all our own. Dark energy presses against matter (our stuff) and gravity (The Constant Force) does its thing from the micro level right on up. Suddenly (give or take a few hundred million years), the heart of a galaxy sized ball of dust coalesces into sphere. As soon as this happens, the almost unimaginable mass of this gargantuan object immediately creates a supermassive black hole at its very center, and the supermassive black hole starts to spin. (And it’s spinning very, very fast.) The immense gravity field generated by the supermassive black hole affects all the matter nearest to it, spinning the galactic sphere into a pudgy disk, while leaving a doughnut shaped halo of matter floating above and below the central part of the galaxy. The very act of spinning the galactic sphere into a disk builds the nascent arms of the spiral, and irregularities in the supermassive black hole’s gravity field alternately speed up and slow down the galaxy sized clouds of dust, causing them to clump together. Boom, a proto star flares and the stellar wind blows away the tiny particles of dust that gave it life, while the planets that circle it (which are already formed) pick up whatever solid matter remains. (Guess how the planets formed.) Meanwhile, those clouds of dust hanging above and below the center of the galaxy are being affected not only by the powerful gravity field of the aforementioned supermassive black hole, but also by the very motions of the galaxy itself. These complex forces shape the halos into immense, tightly packed clusters of stars. (This must have been a gradual process; otherwise, each one of these clusters should have a black hole at its center.) Over time, the Milky Way as we now know it takes shape.

    From here on in I’m down with the rest of what is already accepted as cannon in the whole post big bang galaxy/star formation thing.

    In closing, let me emphasize this again. The hypothesis presented here is based purely on the visual evidence at hand. It’s not some elegant mathematical theory; it’s simply the way things appear to be.

Spaceship N.G.

    Bearing in mind the demands of the new budget, I would like to propose a design for a multipurpose, reusable spacecraft that I first discussed during a closed circuit televised NASA panel held in Atlanta during August of ’09. Simplicity and reusability are the keys. Rather than continuing to design and deploy the astronomically expensive, single mission rocket designs of the past; why not build one multipurpose spacecraft in orbit? Construct the various sections of the spacecraft on Earth, then send them into orbit via two stage booster rockets and assemble them near the space station. (Using the ISS as a base of operations during the initial construction phase has obvious benefits.)

    Below is one possible blueprint for such a craft:

    The primary spacecraft would consist of three modules; the forward, central, and stern sections. The forward section would (of course) be the command module. This module should be dedicated to systems that monitor and control all functions of the spacecraft. Galley and living quarters would not be located in this module.

    The second, or central section, would be the core module. It would link the forward and stern sections of the ship, as well as provide space for additional, mission specific support modules. Basically, this central section would consist of a hexagonal shaped shaft which would be a minimum of seventy-five feet long. The interior of this section would have to be large enough to allow more than one crewman at a time to pass easily from the forward to stern section of the spacecraft. The exterior would have a series of docking rings strategically located on its surface, which would allow for smaller support modules to be attached and secured to the central section. Consider the potential benefits of such a system; Crew’s Quarters, the Galley, various Science Labs, Excursion and Landing Vehicles, Cargo holds, a Gym, even Fruit and Vegetable Gardens can all be built as individual support modules right here on Earth, then lifted into orbit by two stage booster rockets and attached to the central section in space. This would give the craft a level of flexibility unrivaled even by the ISS.

    The third section would be the propulsion module. Since we really are talking about going where no man has gone before, I also have a novel suggestion about how we get there; a combination of both chemical fuel and ion engines. Liquid fuel engines would be used initially to propel the spacecraft out of orbit. Once underway, the ion engines would be activated. Over time, the gentle, but ever increasing push of these engines would give the spacecraft a perceptible increase in momentum (which could prove vital for trips to Mars and other, deeper space objectives). At a certain point during the journey, the spacecraft would be turned one hundred and eighty degrees, and the ion engines would then be used to gradually brake the craft as it neared its objective. Use of the chemical fuel engines will probably be required during the latter stages of this maneuver, as well. While in the mission area, the chemical fuel engines may need to be used to change the craft’s position. And once the mission is complete, the chemical fuel engines will also be needed to start the journey back to Earth (or wherever).

    Until an alternative is presented, these engines will provide the initial thrust when moving the spacecraft from point A to point B. (As to fueling these engines, there are two schools of thought. One is that you send up some sort of fuel shuttle that will transfer fuel to the spacecraft, and then return to Earth when done. Two is you send up fuel tanks and attach them directly to the engine module. No matter which system you decide upon, there will be obvious benefits and equally obvious pitfalls.)

    When not in use, the spacecraft could be parked in orbit near the ISS. By placing it here, the spacecraft can be more easily maintained, and even boarded and moved in case of imminent collision with another object in orbit. However, a second, more attractive option would be to park the craft in orbit around this or any other nearby astronomical body, and have it function as a second manned space station. The craft could also serve as a deep space shuttle, moving crews and cargo to and from destinations beyond Earth orbit. As for the modules that have been removed from the central shaft and are no longer in use, they too can be parked in orbit around this or any other nearby astronomical body until needed. It is quite likely that, given budget constraints, other uses will be found for them.

    The spacecraft I have proposed has everything that NASA is currently looking for; it’s versatile, practical, and it’s also a good sell. With this design there is only the one time expense of building the primary spacecraft. Additional expenses incurred, such as one and two stage boosters to lift modules and supplies, and a support craft to ferry crews into orbit and then return to Earth, will seem minor when compared to the enormous cost of building an entirely new vehicle for each mission. Like its predecessor, the shuttle, this spacecraft will be reusable, and, by adding and subtracting various support modules, the craft can be totally reconfigured for each new mission it undertakes. Combining both chemical fuel and ion engines will also give this craft unparalleled deep space capability, which will be absolutely necessary for NASA is to advance to the next stage of manned interplanetary exploration. Most important of all, this will be the first true spacecraft built by any nation on the Earth; a ship that is constructed in space, and functions exclusively within that medium. Well, there you have it. This concludes my proposal.

    Now, as to where you’re going next, and why, I’ve got some ideas on that, too. Call me.

Molehills Out of Mountains

    Scientists were surprised to discover (note this phrase is becoming cliché) that many of the asteroids in our solar system, rather than being solid chunks of rock, were actually loosely packed mounds of dust and pebbles. And while they’ve successfully worked out the basic nature of the processes involved, they’ve also managed to overlook some of the more obvious conclusions that can be drawn from what we have so far learned. That being the case, allow me to introduce those conclusions here.
    On a recent shuttle mission a novel experiment was conducted to study the effects of micro-gravity. Small grains were placed in a confined space, and then monitored to see how they would react. Almost immediately, the grains began to form into clumps and chains. This was micro-gravity at work. Each individual grain had its own gravity field. Just like miniature magnets, micro-gravity served to draw all the nearest grains together, shaping them into whatever form was most easily achieved, based upon their distribution within the confined space.
    Now, if you understood that last paragraph, and I mean, really understood it, you can skip to the rings part a couple of paragraphs down.
    Okay, here’s how it all works. During the formation of the solar system, you’ve got all these masses of rock and dust, which were created by variations in the rotating gravity fields of the proto-sun and proto-planets. These fields of asteroids surround the sun in a series of rings, and it is from within these rings that the inner, rocky proto-planets are forming. Out beyond the orbit of present day Mars, a series of proto-planets forms and are torn apart by the interaction of the proto-sun and proto-Jupiter. Even as our star blazes into life, and blows away the cloud of interstellar dust in which our solar system formed, the planets are cleaning out the asteroid rings, pulling in everything they can assimilate (a process which continues to this very day).
    With most of the dust now pushed out of the solar system by the solar wind, only the proto-planets, proto-moons, comets, and the asteroids remained. Billions of years passed, and during that time gravity, from micro to planetary scales, did its work. A few particles of dust would cling together, and their combined gravity would attract anything that got close enough and was smaller than them, while they in turn would be attracted to objects larger than them. Multiply this by a few billion years and you’ll understand why so many of the asteroids are just piles of rock, pebbles, and dust, and also why even the solid asteroids haves layers of dust on them, and are pockmarked with craters. Which leads us to our first conclusion: Our Asteroid Belt is a midlife object. Since the Asteroid Belt is not a scattering of dust and rock, but rather a desert in which the occasional mountain comes hurtling by, then it must be at a well advanced stage of planet building (more on this in the Rings section). And, despite the predictions of certain scientists to the contrary, the Asteroid Belt is even now busily attempting to build a proto-planet. Knowing what we now know, it should be possible to create more precise computer models of what is really going on out there in the Asteroid Belt. Such models would have to take into account not only the gravity fields of the sun, Jupiter, and the inner and outer planets, but, and most especially in the case of Jupiter and the sun, variations in those fields, and how they speed up and slow down the individual bodies in the Belt. Once we have a model that is complex enough to simulate these processes, we will gain a more complete understanding of just how planets are formed (always a handy thing to know).
    The rings of Saturn hold the key. Understand what is happening there, and you know one of the secrets of the Universe.
    When Voyager did its Saturn flyby over a quarter of a century ago, scientists were surprised to discover that the famous segments of the Rings of Saturn were actually broken down into myriad subringlets. Stranger still, these ringlets had variations in their density that were visible even to the untrained eye. An entire region, encompassing many rings and ringlets, would be less dense than the rest of the ring system. So much less dense, in fact, that you could almost see right through it. This wasn’t exactly what they’d expected. After many sleepless nights scientists eventually concluded that variations in Saturn’s gravity field were creating these anomalous regions, and from then on all was right with the world-until new probes showed something even more bizarre taking place within the ringlets. Clumps were forming there. Not asteroids, nor even proto-asteroids, but just clumps of ring material. More intriguing than that was the smaller, bow shaped wave that preceded and followed each of these clumps. This one really had them going for a while, until they remembered the variations in gravity thing and realized that Saturn was alternately speeding up and slowing down the material within the rings, and this was causing it to clump together. Once the individual grains of dust and ice got close enough, gravity was simply doing its thing. This also explained the noticeable gaps between some of Saturn’s Rings; these were sections where moons had successfully formed and then broken away from the ring system before Saturn’s gravity could tear them apart again. Which leads us to our second conclusion: Every ringlet in Saturn’s Rings is a failed moon, and every major division of the rings was originally a much larger scale attempt at moon formation.
    Before closing, there is one other little anomaly that no one seems to have clued on that I’d like to mention here. I mean, they’ve seen this, but just haven’t had time to work out the implications yet. You see, the ringlets aren’t identical. Some appear to be made up of grain sized bits of dust and ice, while others consist of much larger pieces of material. This is perfectly logical, and it leads us to our third conclusion: By measuring particle size within the ringlets, we can reach a rough determination on their age (Keeping in mind, of course, that the ringlets with the smallest particles will be the newest rings and those which are made up of larger pieces of material the more mature groups).
    Okay, if you understand what is happening in the rings of Saturn, then you understand how the solar system was formed. And if you understand that, then you know how the entire group of stars which makes up the local stellar neighborhood was formed. And if you read the Spirals and Rings thing then you know how the galaxy was formed. And if you know all that, and can see how it fits together, then you know one of the secrets of the Universe.

CLARIFICATIONS:

Spirals and Rings

Gravity, the constant force: Okay, it’s like this. Gravity was the same at the beginning of the Universe, and it will be the same at the end. The force that gravity exerts will always remain the same, no matter how the expansion of the universe may distort the shape or size of an object. That is why I refer to gravity as the constant force.
    Gravity is the most fundamental force in the universe. Subtract gravity, and nothing else is possible. Regions of greater and lesser density within an object of sufficient size chase after one another, like the highs and lows that pass over the face of our planet, and this causes objects even as small as asteroids to rotate. Variations in the gravity field of the object, created by the same greater and lesser regions of density, affect other nearby objects, and cause them to move, often in circular or elliptical orbits around the larger objects that sent them into motion. These are the mechanics of our Universe. All of what we perceive as reality, from the radiant lattice works of galaxies, right down to the tiniest grain of sand, can be directly attributed to gravity.
    As to just how powerful gravity actually is, well, any sufficient clumping of matter creates a field of gravity strong enough to retard the expansion of the matter that it is holding together. Because of this, matter is expanding much more slowly than the spaces in between. Since the stars in our own galaxy are not racing away from us, then we can assume that the combined mass of our galaxy is actually retarding the growth of local space. So our local group of stars remains comfortably close, while galaxies race away from us at unimaginable speeds.

    Recently, I saw a video by S Hawking, in which he postulated that after the big bang there was a static, almost evenly layered cloud of dust that stretched out over the known universe. (Keeping in mind, of course, that at this point you could have held the universe in your hand, but it was still infinite, and it still took light years to travel from one point to another.) According to him, small irregularities in this unimaginably vast dust cloud created gravity, and the rest, if you’ve been following along, is history.
Well, he’s Stephen Hawking, and I’m not. But, I still have to disagree.
    You see, one thing that our current picture of the Universe has shown us, is that there is more darkness, more yawning gaps of nothingness, than there are clusters and lattice works of galaxies. Judging strictly from the visual evidence, it seems that Dark Energy was already at work during the formation of the Universe. Dark Energy appears to have segregated matter into dense pockets very early in the process. Perhaps it was this very action that first shaped, and then triggered galaxy formation.

    When I was describing the formation of supermassive black holes at the heart of galaxies, I’m fairly certain I heard somebody shout Quasar! Yes, it is quite possible that these galactic scale attempts at star formation could very well be the source of Quasars.

    Okay, I brought this up at the NASA thingie last August. I thought I made it clear, but from their reaction, things still seem a little up in the air. Allow me to explain. Every time I mention what’s going on in the rings of Saturn, I always follow that with a comment on the Apollo and Trojan Asteroids. There’s a reason for that.
    Two schools of thought here: One-both sets of asteroids consist of random wanderers that Earth has picked up over the last four and a half billion years. This is the accepted theory.
    However-it seems obvious that the sun was surrounded by the same rings and ringlets as Saturn; which means that some of those asteroids could have been picked up by the Earth while it was still nothing more than a large clump of matter, long before it ever reached proto-planet stage. Think of it. The very building blocks of this planet, the progenitors of everything we are or ever will be. That is something worth examining. That is something worth bringing back and studying. It would also be a short mission into deep space, only a few million miles; an opportunity to test our deep space capability, in preparation for longer journeys to more distant objects.

Molehills Out of Mountains

    While the impression I may have given was that the asteroid belt formed in a leisurely fashion, over billions of years, it was not quite as laid back as all that. During the last four or five billion years, one or more proto-planets have been created in the asteroid belt, and then captured or consumed by one of the inner or outer planets, or by the sun. Much of the rest of the material was either siphoned off by Earth, Jupiter, Venus, Mars, or the sun. Considering the size of Venus and Earth, our two planets apparently got more than their fair share of material in the inner solar system, leaving Mars and Mercury to go wanting. Still, Mars is much closer to the Asteroid belt than we are, and so the red planet should be larger than it is. But, it’s not. So, then Earth and Jupiter should have gotten most of the material-except, Earth and Venus are almost identical in size, which means they stole equally from Mars, Mercury, and each other. (With the sun or Jupiter getting whatever was left over.) Taking all of this into account, the picture that gradually emerges seems to indicate that at least one other proto-planet formed somewhere between Mars and the asteroid belt, and that planet gobbled up most of what was left over in the belt after one or more proto-planets were formed there. (As to that planet’s fate, it’s hard to say. If it had broken up, most of the material would still be there. So, it was either assimilated by another body in the solar system, or is currently orbiting one of them. Any of the proto-planets that took shape in the belt probably shared the same fate.) After these and many other cataclysms, the asteroid belt took what it had left, and, over time, did what it could with it; ultimately, leaving us with the desiccated, widely scattered belt of mountains that we have hurtling around out there today.
    But, that’s not the end of the story. Within another few billion years, there won’t be any belt at all. The sun and planets will have consumed it. That’s what happens in a healthy, mature solar system.